The Effect of Indian Reforms Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

The Effect of Indian Reforms - Essay Example The Global impact of this change can be assessed from the fact that the Indian economy is now attracting FDI at an increasing speed and it is offering support to world economies through its purchasing power parity and huge market. The reforms have however not yet benefited the entire population and in the interim, the poor-rich inequalities have increased and need to be attended to with speed. Also, the neglected agricultural sector needs to be reformed as well to give a balance to the reform process and the economy at large. It has been concluded that the economy has certainly improved since the reforms were initiated. The days of imperialism and colonialism are pat and in this new age of globalization, the world has veered to the view that all economies are interdependent and that failure of one would have deep repercussion over the rest. This has brought about a spate of reforms that are suggested or forced upon ailing economies, in the overall interest of the world economy. Theoretically, the choice has been, initiated and led by International Financial Institutions, of a big bang and shock therapy. But this formula is applicable in authoritarian regimes that force them on their economies and countries. The other approach, one that has not been largely favored, is gradual and incremental. This has always been looked upon as slow, unwieldy and risky inasmuch that its decisions can be reversed quickly towards status quo on the first signs of failure or strain. India, however, chose the latter method and spread its reforms and the liberalization and globalization process to stretch over almost two decades. In the sixties, it was unimaginable that from a net importer of food, India could become an occasional exporter about forty years later. Similarly, a receiver of foreign aid became a donor, even if a small one. And, foreign exchange, once the great constraint, would eventually become plentiful.  

Strategic delivery of change Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Strategic delivery of change - Essay Example He later became the director of the company in 1986 where he renamed the company WPP. WPP became the largest marketing and Communication Company worldwide by 1998. Organic growth and strategic combination enabled the company to achieve this position. The company is of good importance to the public in terms of environmental conditions. The raw materials and other resources used by the company are wastes, which could have polluted the environment. The studies indicated that the problem in many companies is how the company is recruiting the employees. Employees are not recruited as per their qualifications. This is because after the interview the recruited employees have lower grades than those who are left out. I worked in the company as part time employee and I have experienced how the employees are recruited. There are employees who have served in the company for a long time without being confirmed. This is because new employees are admitted to larger positions in the company leaving the other employees unconfirmed though they are qualified. For one to be employed in the company, it depends on what you have and whom you know in the company. Employees in the management positions are recruiting their friends and relative even if they are not qualified for the positions. This will lead to poor performances in the company, which might even lead to collapse of the company. This problem in the organization is brought by long serving employees in the management positions. This makes them ignore the rules and regulations of the company and exercise their duties as they wish. When it comes to recruitment, employees in the management position will consider their friends and relatives are first making all process unfair. The managers employ their own people, but they conduct the interviews only for formality in the organization. This makes the employees in the organization to be incompetent. This is because they cannot perform their duties as

Impacts of media violence on violence against women

Impacts of media violence on violence against women Media Violence as a Causal Agent for Violence Against Women Through Desensitization, Reinforcement of Gender Roles for Women, and Social Learning Theory. Media Violence as a Causal Agent for Violence Against Women Through Desensitization, Gender Roles of Women, and Social Learning Theory In the span of about one century the western world has made significant strides to amend the discrepancy in equality between women and men (Crow Gotell, 2004). Beginning with the first wave of feminism in the nineteenth and early twentieth century, the official rights of women were sought and established, resulting in important and favourable amendments to the existing legislation, such as womens right to vote (Johnson-Odim, 1991). Nonetheless, inequalities between women and men were not confined to court documents and legislation, rather they extended further into the community (Johnson-Odim, 1991). As a response to this the second wave of feminism took precedence to address unofficial, social issues including those related to sexuality, the workplace, and reproductive rights (Johnson-Odim, 1991). Yet, and despite the contributions made by both movements, several issues remain on the changing and diverse identity of women (Crow Gotell, 2004).In response to this, the third wave of feminism was dedicated to refuting the notion of a universal female identity and instead prioritizing diversity among women (Crow Gotell, 2004). Ultimately, however, the forms of violence and aggression toward women have evolved, become more subtle and implicit, but equally unjust (Rice, 2005). That is, although womens rights and freedom are made present on the surface, there continues to be questionable events that threaten the dignity of women (Rice, 2005). Specifically, popular media has played a significant role in facilitating, as well as perpetuating, violence against women (Bocock, 2006). With liberalism becoming more adamant in western culture, the visual depictions of women to capitalize on products and services has become normalized (Bocock, 2006). As a result, women are often directly associated with sex and sexuality, completely negating the rest of their being (Bocock, 2006). Currently, there is a large body of research dedicated to exploring the relationship between violent media and aggression, but few studies have been done to specifically address the transition between exposure to violent media and committing acts of violence towards women (Ferguson, San Miguel, Hartley, 2009). Because this issue is still a relative novelty, it is important to be cognoscente of extra variables that influence violence towards women in real life, all of which should be considered and weighed. However, the intent of this review is to decons truct the ways in which violence in the media, specifically in television, can facilitate and perpetuate violence towards women in real life. The type of real life violence under consideration focuses on physical and sexual violence, as well as negative stereotypes and attitudes about women. Although several perspectives and paradigms can be used to explain the contributions to violence towards women, this review will detail the mechanisms of psychological desensitization, reinforcement of womens gender roles, and social learning theory to analyze the role of violent media as a contributing factor in violence towards women. To begin, and as aforementioned, the exploration of the relationship between media violence and real life violence is not a new subject, rather an ongoing quest to further break down the phenomenon. A common reoccurrence is the issue of media violence and the desensitization of traits that allow us to associate inappropriate acts with human suffering (Fanti, Vanman, Henrich, Avraamides 2009). Fanti et al (2009) define desensitization as diminished emotional responses to a negative or adverse stimulus after repeated exposure to it. Essentially, repeated exposure to media violence can habituate adverse reactions, voiding a persons innate and natural negative response when viewing violence (Fanti et al, 2009). One plausible explanation for the way desensitization works is that exposure to violent media eliminates inhibitions to violence, which in turn may foster pro-violence attitudes and lower empathic responses (Fanti et al, 2009). This proposal further confirmed by Fanti et al (2009 ) in their empirical study, in which they exposed young adults to violent or comedic television clips. They hypothesized that repeated exposure to violent media would not only lower the empathic responses of participants, but also increase their levels of enjoyment when watching violent media (Fanti et al, 2009). Ultimately, their study showed that desensitization to media violence can occur after repeated exposure to media violence, and that these results can be seen in a short-term period (i.e. desensitization does not need extensive time to develop) (Fanti et al, 2009). In addition the researchers found that with repeated exposure to violent media not only was the psychological impact and sympathy of the participants reduced, but they reported an increased enjoyment of viewing violent media (Fanti et al, 2009). To further strengthen their results, the researchers were also able to discount existing personality traits (i.e. aggressive individuals) as being correlated with desensit ization (Fanti et al, 2009). However, there is an extensive body of research that counters the argument that media is accountable for violence, and instead analyzes other factors that have a heavier contribution to anti-social acts like violence. To illustrate this, a study by Ferguson et al (2009) looked at 603 youths in Texas, half of which were male and half female. Their aim was to evaluate the multiple variables that are associated with violent behaviour in youth (Ferguson et al, 2009). They found that in comparison to exposure to violent television, the most influential factors on the existence of aggressive behaviour were: delinquent peer influences, anti-social personality traits, depression or depressed mood, and parents or guardians who use psychological abuse in their personal relationships (Ferguson et al, 2009). These results undermine the argument, as proposed by Fanti et al (2009), that violence in the media is the most influential agent in desensitization, leading to violent real-life behaviour by the viewer. Although it is certainly important to consider the multivariate relationship linked with acts of violence or aggression it is important to acknowledge how detrimental violent media can be. The argument that violent media can desensitize individuals and disinhibit their violent impulses or behaviour can be supported within a biological framework (Strenziok, 2010). In a study by Strenziok et al (2010) 37 healthy male participants were tested to analyze the relationship between their exposure to media violence and left orbitofrontal cortex density (LOFC) as mediated by synaptic pruning. Because the orbitofrontal cortex is responsible for important regulatory functions, such as decision-making, social adjustment, and inhibition, any changes that occur in the cortex as a result of pruning can have significant effects (Strenziok et al, 2010). When synaptic pruning occurs the process happens within context (Strenziok et al, 2010). That is, the en vironment plays a major role in selecting which neuronal connections will be pruned and which will be maintained (Strenziok et al, 2010). Strenziuok et al (2010) found that there was a negative correlation between exposure to violent media and left orbitofrontal cortex density. Their findings suggest that media violence can facilitate synaptic pruning in the LOFC, which then short-circuits/decreases neuronal connectionsultimately disrupting normal orbitofrontal cortex functions and allowing for anti-social violent behaviour (Strenziok et al, 2010). Furthermore, the desensitization process and the serving biological functions can be applicable to violence towards women. In a society that upholds equality, freedom, and rights as priorities, there continues to be sensationalized displays violence in the media. One study aimed to examine the effects of repeated exposure to sexually violent films on emotional desensitization toward victims of domestic violence and abuse within sample of 138 males. (Mullin Linz, 1995). The results showed a decrease in emotional response, physiological arousal, and ratings of how sexually violent the films were with repeated film exposure (Mullin Linz, 1995). These statistically significant results were relative to the results of the control group, and lasted for three days. That is, when re-evaluated three days after the initial experiment, the results remained static (Mullin Linz, 1995). However, it is important to also acknowledge that these results did not extend further than three days (Mullin Linz, 1995). When tested again five days after the initial experiment, participants baseline responses were restored, essentially suggesting that the effects of sexually violent films were only maintained for a limited and short-term period (Mulling Linz, 1995). The authors suggest that the results may reflect a lack of ecological validity in the study, since exposure to violent media is longer and more continuous over time compared t o exposure in a clinical setting (Mullin Linz, 1995). What this implies then, is that in a real life setting these results may be inapplicable and possibly irrelevant to violence towards women. Above differential perspective, what this study ultimately supports is the existence of a strong relationship between exposure to gender-based, sexually violent films and overall desensitization (Mullin Linz, 1995). Lastly, a study by Linz and Adams (1989) measured physiological desensitization (i.e. heart rate) and its relation to cognitive, affective, and attitudinal components of desensitization. Participants were exposed to either a videotape depicting violence against women or a videotape of non-violent, but exciting content (Linz Adams, 1989). Then all participants watched video clips of violence towards a woman, with a male as the aggressor (Linz Adams, 1989). Linz and Adams (1989) found that heart rates of participants in the violent videotape condition were lower during the final 90 seconds of each violent video clip compared to the control group. In addition, participants in the violent videotape condition attributed less injury to the female victims portrayed in the media in comparison to the control group (Linz Adams, 1989). To further delineate the contrast between the experimental and control conditions, the control condition experience significant increases in hostility, anxiety, and depression during the violent video clips- a testament of their adverse responses to and disapproval of violent media (Linz Adams, 1989). Ultimately, based on the growing body of literature on violence and media, there is significant evidence to support the role of exposure to violent media and its facilitation of real life violence, as it pertains to women. Such evidence not only addresses sociological perspectives of desensitization, but also provides psychophysiological support to explain the biological processes that enable such a relationship. Because humans tend to be swayed from and influenced by several variables, it is important to further analyze sociopsychological and cultural variables in the relationship between media violence and women. Specifically, gender norms and roles as they relate to women will be discussed in the context of media and real life violence. Although these roles and norms are an integral part of our identity beginning from birth, one must consider the unanticipated consequences. Often times with such social and cultural standards there runs a risk of placing individuals into very concise and finite societal niches, which may be difficult to break free from. For example, in western societies, the moment a baby is born he or she is often assigned a colour, according to gender appropriateness, be it pink or blue. The process of socialization begins from the moment an infant is introduced into society. From that moment onward, the child is brought up to meet societal and cultural standard of correc t ways of being, according to their sex. Unfortunately, this strenuous and confining process is difficult to stray away from, and individuals who attempt to establish themselves as persons first, rather than male or female, often experience disapproval, backlash, and even social isolation. In addition, the role of the media has been another influential means by which to enforce norms and roles in western worlds. Specifically, recent literature has proposed arguments that violent media reinforces the self-image of women in accordance with gender roles, and can even foster intra-female real life violence. What this implies then is that not only is violence towards women a reality, but that women themselves are now engaging in their own demise and contributing to the same hegemony that oppresses them. Although it was traditionally understood within the scientific realm that aggression is primarily related to males, and that aggression is singular in nature (i.e. direct, physical), rece nt literature is debunking this claim. Specifically, indirect aggression, which is not physical or explicit, in female-female relationships has take centre stage (Bjorkqvist, 1994). In theory, there is no reason to suggest that women are as violent as men, considering their physical ability. In reality, however, women have adapted to this difference by using indirect hostility and aggression by way of verbal and social manipulative (e.g. spreading rumours, excluding peers, etc) acts as a means of being violent ( Bjorkqvist, 1994, Cote, 2007). Bjorkqvist (1994) suggests that this indirect aggression can even be considered more sophisticated and powerful than conventional aggression (i.e. physical) because the aggressor is able to harm another person without being identified. However, the nature of aggression displayed by women and men cannot be solely attributed to biological or physiological differences. Social and cultural variables, and their influence on learning help perpetuate these modes of aggression (Bjorkqvist, 1994). With violent media being so pervasive and omnipresent, particularly as it relates to women, it is important to explore its effects on real life actions. Ringrose (2006) examines the way in which media sensationalizes indirect violence, now being referred to as the mean girl phenomenon and the implications it brings forth. This novelty depiction of women poses a bilateral problem, in that aggression is often synonymous with power but remains as a type of behaviour frowned upon in women. For example, Gonick(2004) proposes that the stereotypical vulnerable girl has now been replaced by the mean girl in the public eye. What would be ideal is to avoid polarizing womens behaviour, or homogenizing them into black or white categories, figuratively speaking. Nonetheless, what is ideal is rarely reality. Although the recent creation of the mean girl in the media appears to provide equality between women and men, as it provides an over reactive res ponse and antidote to the idea that women are nurturing and not aggressive, there a are serious side effects to this new sensation (Gonick, 2004). The pervasive presence of this construction of the mean girl in the media is now redefining normal behaviour for women and girls, allowing femininity and aggressive behaviour to be re-pathologized (Ringrose, 2006). Now that popular media, specifically televised and print media, is disguising indirect female-female aggression behind the facade of female empowerment, a new template of appropriate girl and women behaviour is being inherited by newer generations. The media often portrays indirect violent behaviour as exciting, dramatic, sexy, and especially as a marker of status and power. For example, feature films such as Mean Girls and Thirteen glorify indirect and relational aggression, depicting relating such behaviour to physical attractiveness, popularity, and success. Not only are such media positing that such behaviour is appealing a nd even glamorous, but is also negates all other equally important aspects of existence, such as stable family relationships, and a breadth of education. In addition to assigning indirect aggression as a vehicle of power, violent media also sets up such aggression to take place in female to female social relationships. It is often said that a civilization destroys itself from within rather than being conquered by outsiders and the western female population exemplifies this heuristic. That is, because violent media sensationalizes indirect aggression in female-female relationships, the integrity with which women relate and identify with one another is compromised. As such, this population is left vulnerable and more susceptible to patriarchal standards of life, and is once again turned into a commodity that can be regulated according to trends and demands. A study by Lavin and Cash (2000) demonstrates the complex relationship between violent media portrayals of women and real life in direct aggression in female-female interactions. They conducted an experimental study to break down and examine the effects of mass media and womens body-image experiences (Lavin Cash, 2000). In this study 66 college women were made to listen to one of two audio tapes: one containing information on the subject of appearance stereotyping and discrimination and the other containing information on television violence aggression (control condition) (Lavin Cash, 2000). At the conclusion of their study they found that although neither condition differed in the altered mood of the participants, exposure to t he appearance-related condition versus the control condition yielded significantly less favourable body-image evaluations (Lavin Cash, 2000). The results, produced by Ten Visual Analogues Scales and the 14-Item Appearance Schemas Inventory, demonstrate the ways in which western media showcases beauty and physical attractiveness in conjunction with covert and overt social benefits (L avin cash, 2000). In addition, the violent media often depict strong associations between beauty and desirable traits. That is, women are learning that beauty is good, and that is it the most important factor in leading a fulfilling life is the virtue of beauty. Because of this trend in the media of using womens physicality as commodities and means to capitalize and turn a profit, women become more invested in their aesthetic selves. In turn, women who have deep psychological investments with their self aesthetics become more susceptible to adverse social events, such as negative feedback about their weight or comparison cues (Lavin Cash, 2000). Such events become critical experiences, and pose the possibility of increased body dissatisfaction. For example, the images of dismembered women in print ads are rampant. What is meant by dismemberment is that only parts of womens bodies are used to sell a product of service. A good illustration of this is the prototypical beer print ad, in which the only thing visible is a womans torso with specific attention paid to the bust, followed by a posing hand holding a beer bottle. Such media pays no attention to the woman in question, rather reduces her to specific anatomical parts, in total disconnection to her individual self. In fact, a face is not only unnecessarily in such violent media, but is also obstructive because violence is more acceptable when identity is unknown (CITATION). Ultimately, violent media not only encourages and portrays indirect aggression as a means of power and representation of status, but also regulates its usage in womens relationships with one another, such that women become active participants in their own oppression and violence. To add to this, women also internalize their roles in western society as portrayed by the media. That is, women begin to see themselves and their bodies in terms of their sexual and aesthetic worth, disregarding other important aspects of their lives. Clearly, t he role of violent media cannot be ignored in light of the consequences it brings. This is not to imply that violent media the sole cause of such effects, as there are other variables to consider. There is a significant amount of research that supports the argument that exposure to violence and aggression enacted in parental relationships in the home have the most significant impact on violence inRather, the aforementioned information should be used to support the significant contributions and influences between violent media and violence towards women. Another mechanism by which violence in the media influences violence in real life violence is through the social learning theory. Bandura (1978) defines the social learning theory as a process in which people learn new behaviours by observing the behaviours of others, and assessing the benefits of exhibiting that behaviour to determine whether the behaviour will be sustained over time. That is, if the behaviour in question results in positive outcomes, then the observer is more likely to display this behaviour (Bandura, 1978)

Jean-Paul Sartres Extentialism & Taoism and the Movie Fight Club Essay

Man had to believe in something. That something was an ordering principle. And this was essential; it appeared, because the scientific temperament appeared not to assure man but to trigger him to drift even more aimlessly. Mankind needed a new book of lessons and a teacher as well. Humanity required it. What had occurred to produce such a yearning? Where was Reason? Where was God? With all the gods dead and buried, with nobody to believe in, the existentialists turned to humanity itself to unearth new values. While they acknowledged the nihilistic tendencies of bourgeois civilization, they were not themselves nihilists. They preserved a faith in humanity; a faith that guided them to the belief that only man could comprehend and resolve the tribulations of mankind. Existentialism sketched on a number of earlier ideas and one of its lasting strengths was that it survived to take in nearly two centuries of European thought into one composition. It was a perennial philosophy. It was th e fundamental Nietzcsheanism. As Sartre once wrote, "existentialism is an attempt to draw all the consequences from a consistent atheist position."(Sartre, 1962) According to Sartre, it had been Dostoevsky who had created that if God did not exist, and then anything would be allowed. This, in a nutshell, is the starting point, not the consequence or objective, of existentialism. If one really comprehends the sense of modern godless man's plight, one is at first condensed to nausea and despair. All of the human kind must go through that awful sense of depression that escort’s ones’ insight into the human condition and ourselves. Man is alone because he cannot be in contact with others. He finds himself in a world in which he is completely alien to othe... ...re consistent. And if person can be neither correct nor incorrect, how will he be able to be admired or held responsible, and how can he be accountable? References Bell, Ross Grayson: Chuck Palahniuk. Fight Club novel. Edward Norton Yale Interview on Fight Club. May 14, 2003 www.chuckpalahniuk.net official website Jean-Paul Sartre. Being and Nothingness (L'Être et le nà ©ant, 1943) Translated and quoted by Maurice Natanson A Critique of Jean-Paul Sartre's Ontology (1951) Sartre Jean-Paul  Existentialism is a Humanism (L’Existentialisme est un humanisme, Lecture given in 1946 Source: Existentialism from Dostoyevsky to Sartre, ed. Walter Kaufman, Meridian Publishing Company, 1989 http://members.aol.com/scissorside/jean.htm Boobbyer, Philip: Identity: Post Modernism Global Express UK. 1996-2003 http://globalexpress.initiativesofchange.org/issue6/inout.html

History of Auditing

| | |The History of Auditing | |A detailed overview | | | | | | | | Auditing has a rich history within the United States. There have always been various rudimentary forms of auditing when the first businesses were started; however the focus of this paper will be on auditing standards within the twentieth century. To look beyond that departs from what would typically be termed as â€Å"modern accountancy† and its relevant roots.Author Bruce Marshall helps describes why this historic perspective is so important of our field: â€Å"Accountancy is a recognized profession like those of law and medicine. †¦ In fact it might not be too much to say that it is regarded as the most important of all the professions. Indeed it is the cornerstone upon which the whole industry of our Empire is built. †[1] Establishing a Need for Auditing In one of the earliest forms of organized auditing, the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants issued a series of pamphlets to the accounting profession in 1917.The pamphlets were designed to guide financial statement analysis and auditing in general, offering more transparency to the emerging corporations that were springing up around the country. Strong motivation for this release came from the Federal Trade Commission and the Federal Reserve Board, stemming from a panic in the previous decade that had sent chills through the investment community. Both entities wanted to offer a stabilizing force to help guide the United States’ corporate growth.An early accounting journal discusses the pamphlets: â€Å"The memorandum is of such importance that it has been reprinted in full in this issue of The Journal of Accountancy and we are confident it will appeal to all readers. To the members of the institute it will serve as a guide in all their audits for credit purposes, and they will understand that the burden of proof will be upon them if they omit any of the procedure laid down in the memorandum. [ 2] The pamphlets were an adequate start, yet lacked the authority to be the final solution for stability. Federal Trade Commission Chairman W. E. Humphrey delivered a well timed statement on the progress the FTC had made, but also addressed some of the limitations: â€Å"I am constrained to believe that the business of this country, and particularly big business, is more and more forced to the conclusion that honesty is not only the best policy, but that it pays the highest dividends.I feel that there has been a tremendous improvement in the conduct of the business of the country over the last few years, but the time has not come, and I regret to say that it seems far off, when the strong arm of the government will not be needed to protect the public from greed, monopoly, fraud, and unfair practices. †[3] Humphrey however, could not foresee how right he actually was. After an especially lucrative decade for investors in the roaring twenties, one of the most devastating financ ial crises struck the United States in 1929 as the NY stock exchange came tumbling down.Corruption and greed were rampant among most major companies, whom often distorted how risky their operations actually were. Margin borrowing by investors allowed huge amounts of debt to be taken on without proper risk mitigation. Investors, knowing no better, had dumped small fortunes into the market. The fragile infrastructure of the system couldn’t handle the load and eventually caved in. Those companies that would survive the crash needed standardization and change in order for the investors’ faith to be restored.The Federal Trade Commission stepped in to fill this need. The first official document: â€Å"Verification of Financial Statements,† which was solely dedicated to provide guidance for audit, was released the same year as the crash. This document dove further than the previous decades’ pamphlets did, focusing in on small and medium sized companies, as well as the general need for the customized auditing tailored to each different companies, based on need. In response to the extreme amounts of personal wealth destroyed during the tock market crash in 1929 and the ensuing depression, Congress was forced to take even more action. The suggested guidelines outlined by the FTC were just not enough to ensure a stable economy. The regulation of business and the accounting firms is commonly recognized to have been born just after the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) was established in the mid 1930s. Despite public investment being in an advanced stage at the time, corporate regulation was practically unheard of. The SEC was a product of both the Securities Act and the Securities Exchange Act.William Raymond offers insight on the initial operations of the SEC and how the investor took advantage: â€Å"There are probably thousands of investors throughout the country who are at a loss to understand what value is all the data gathered by the Securities and Exchange Commission, which is headquartered in Washington and no convenient way for the investor to visit and secure the valuable data themselves. To these investors, the commission offers a very adequate mailing service, through which various actions by the commission, decisions and other matters may be obtained simply by requesting the placing of their names on the mailing list. [4] Even from the beginning, serious debates raged in Washington about whether it was constitutional for the government to be involved in public corporations, much less private ones. Without regulation, there was fear another collapse was unavoidable. Establishing standards for preparing and auditing financial statements was decided to be the bare minimum that was essential to steer clear of any future turmoil. The authority to set the rules and oversight for what would become â€Å"auditors† was given to the SEC. Auditors themselves were allowed to set their own standards, but fi nal say was still in the hands of the SEC.It is important to distinguish between accounting standards and auditing standards. Although related, auditing is but a piece of accounting. Nevertheless, to truly understand the history of auditing, one must note the progression of accountancy as well. Regulating Auditing Procedures In recognition of the expertise and resources of the accounting profession, the SEC has traditionally looked to the standard setting bodies from the private sector to provide a foundation for improving accounting principles and reporting standards.The private sector offered a baseline set of guidelines, which the SEC built off of. From 1938 and 1959, the Committee on Accounting Procedure (CAP) issued 51 Accounting Research Bulletins. The ARBs formed the basis of what is probably the single biggest resource to accountants today. GAAP, or the generally accepted accounting principles, is the foundation of all modern accounting. By 1959, CAP had been replaced by ano ther entity, the Accounting Principles Board (APB). The APB was responsible for 31 new general accounting standards from 1959-1973.This transition would mark the beginning of a plethora of different organizations over the years which would guide the practice. To improve the quality of audits in the 1960’s, the bigger companies added a new technique. Peer review, as it was called, required firms to confirm the accuracy of one another. It was so effective; the AICPA eventually added it as a requirement in 1977 for any member of the CPA division (within the AICPA). Firms were not required to join this division, but those who did agreed to a peer review as part of the guidelines.Eventually the peer review was deemed mandatory for all firms, membership or not, as part of the complete overhaul to the self control systems in 1989. The restructuring enacted change in the AICPA’s bylaws that required all members who practice must belong to a special group within the parent orga nization called the SEC Practice Section. The Practice Section had numerous guidelines for membership. The most notable included provisions that each member must engage in a peer review with another firm of comparable size.The point of the provision was to offer further reassurance to investors that operating accountants had adequate control mechanisms, regarding the integrity of GAAP and GAAS. While peer review is not a complete test, the idea is that a sampling of a firm’s work represents an adequate representation of the entire operation. Auditing every piece of work in a firm would be a completely unreasonable request, thus sampling method would have to suffice. Any findings from the peer reviews were available for viewing by the general public.Each firm is issued a report that contains the audit results and sometimes even comments on how the firm might improve its reporting procedures. Occasionally, a reader might even find the resulting changes made and any comments the audited firm has made regarding the issue. This open communication was a significant step forward towards complete transparency. William Kinney comments on what is important to the users: â€Å"Internal controls are also important to investors, the government, and ociety as a whole since they may affect long-term confidence in corporate accountability, and in the corporate form of organization. †[5] Despite this transparency, the increasingly complex business environment was proving to be too much to handle for one part time regulating committee, even with peer reviews. In order to solve this issue, an independent organization was necessary to help cater to the interests of investors, accountants and creditors. A full time committee eventually ended up relieving the AICPA of its duties.FASB, or Financial Accounting Standards Board, was officially created in 1972. FASB’s primary responsibility surrounds setting ground rules in all non governmental entities. These groun d rules covered anything from revenue recognition  and all other broad topics, to specific topics such as dividends. Marshall Armstrong writes in detail about its purpose: â€Å"The objective of the qualitative standards is to provide guidance in determining the substance of a transaction or event, regardless of its form, and a moral and ethical basis for its fair presentation in financial reports. [6] These standards are officially recognized by the SEC as the authoritative standard. Even with the establishment of FASB, the AICPA still existed to a limited extent. Through the means of the Accounting Standards Executive Committee, the AICPA works to collaborate with FASB on common objectives. Membership practices in FASB are intended to keep a level of independence but still effectively operate with the private sector in mind. It operates under the auspices of the Financial Accounting Foundation (FAF), which consists of sixteen trustees, twelve of whom are elected by representati ves of FAF’s sponsoring organizations — the AICPA, the American Accounting Association; the Financial Executive Institute; the Securities Industry Association; the National Association of State Auditors, Controllers and Treasurers; the Institute of Management Accountants; and the Government Finance Officers Association. The other four at-large members are appointed by the FAF itself.The FAF, in turn, appoints the members of the FASB and its advisory council. It is also responsible for funding the FASB. †[7] The first specific auditing standards were issued way back in 1939. The American Institute of Accountants authorized the appointment of a standing committee to advise on auditing procedure. By 1941, the AIA had released a several statements with the purpose to guide the individual auditor. Most notably was the â€Å"Statements on Auditing Procedure†, which offered a baseline for how auditors should responsibly approach individual audits, while using pro per judgment.These â€Å"SAP† s would be the first of 54 future statements issued up until 1970. The SEC required all auditors to swear upon their work, that it followed these generally accepted auditing standards. To help with compliance of this requirement, the SEC released the â€Å"Generally Accepted Auditing Standards—Their Significance and Scope. † Within ten years, the committee combined twenty-four of the pronouncements into one single body which would be referenced often during the process of internal control.Other notable consolidation efforts included the 1962 release of the â€Å"Statement of Auditing Procedure No. 33† which combined many of the standards trickled out between 1949 and 1963. This baseline document was turned into a single presentation, being coded in the process by 1972. The 1972 revision was held under the title: â€Å"Statement on Auditing Standards† or SAS. With the combination and official first uniform document, the committee officially changed its name to the Auditing Standard Executive Committee (AudSEC).In the next six years, AudSEC released 23 total SASes as a guideline for auditors. The AICPA continued to conduct numerous studies through committees on how to operate most effectively as a tool to the accounting profession. By 1978, the Auditing Standards Board (ASB) was the newest incarnation of an organized body charged with setting standards for the profession. An AudSEC’s successor, the ASB operated as 15 members with the responsibility to make relevant public statements, without having to obtain clearance first from the AICPA.Furthermore the ASB would set ground rules for how an auditor performs his assessment in regards to whether financial statement presentation conforms to the generally accepted accounting principles. Before setting new standards, the ASB will carefully gather all relevant opinions, including those of the Chief Accountant of the SEC as well as various other w ell known and respected individuals in the profession. The ASB replaced all previous senior technical committees in regards to the GAAS. The Public Oversight Board (POB) was created in 1977, which further helped to push transparency in the industry.The POB is a watch group entity responsible for oversight of the processes of the SECPS. The POB is an independent organization, which despite being funded by the SECPS, controls its own membership. If a firm has more than thirty SEC audit clients, then the POB will engage in reviews of the firm. The reviews can also take place in firms with less than thirty SEC audit clients, but the frequency of them is far fewer. Furthermore, the SEC will periodically inspect a sample of the peer reviews and even compile an annual public report that details its operations for the year. Auditing in Modern TimesOver seventy years after the stock market crash of 1929, again the Unites States would be struck by the uncertainty of the public corporation. Th e collapse of Enron revealed fraudulent accounting practices by the energy company itself and its accounting firm Arthur Anderson. By creating special purpose entities, Enron and Arthur Andersen effectively hid massive amounts of Enron debt, making the company appear much more profitable than it actually was. The house of cards built by Enron eventually collapsed leaving the SEC to sift through the rubble to discover what had actually happened. Also complicit were Arthur Andersen and lead Partner David Duncan. Duncan earned $700,000 annually to manage this account, plus part of Andersen's partnership profit pool. To appease Enron, he apparently did not require many large audit adjustments for several years, and often signed off on financial statements that were, by any reasonable standards, unclear and misleading. This shoddy work and attempts to eliminate key evidence led to Andersen's felony conviction and demise – apparently ignoring its founder's key slogan of thinking st raight and talking straight. [8] In response to the Enron collapse as well as the other companies which went down in its wake, the SEC was forced to up the ante, so to speak, with public transparency and accountability. In 2002, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act was put into place, which drastically altered the structure of GAAP. Through the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB) and the Securities Exchange Commission (SEC) were given the final say over all auditing standards. Registration was required with the PCAOB for CPAs and CPA firms who worked with public companies.Once registered, members must adhere to all standards, principles, rules, and interpretations set forth by the PCAOB. Further restructuring surfaced in 2004 as the PCAOB was set as the authority on public companies (as it pertains to GAAS), while the ASP oversaw private companies. Chuck Landes, a VP with the AICPA, speaks to the changes in an interview with the Ohio Society of CPAs: â€Å"A uditing standards have changed and now call for more attention to the audit itself. Auditing is a serious business and it needs to be taken seriously. You can't be a part-time auditor.I see firms making intelligent decisions about being in the audit business and committing the necessary resources around the audit function. In our new risk assessment standards, having an understanding of the industry is essential. †[9] The unfortunate trend with auditing standards is that a tragic event usually occurs for the foundation to adjust. It is a great system to catch and fix problems, but as the time passes, the scale of the instigating event becomes larger and larger. As long as there are men and women with greed, there will be a need for auditing.Armstrong, Marshall. 1973. FASB will develop broad qualitative standards. The CPA Journal (pre-1986)  43,  no. 000010,  (October  1):  844 Bateman & Co. A History of Accounting & Auditing Standards. February 2002. http://www. bate manhouston. com/newsStds. htm Humphrey W E. 1928. A Friend of Honest Business. Nation's Business (pre-1986),  June  5,  31. Kinney, William R. , Jr. ,  Maher, Michael W. ,  and  Wright, David W. 1990. Assertions-Based Standards for Integrated Internal Control. Accounting Horizons  4,  no. 4,  (December  1) Lasch, Erin. 2002. Chuck Landes is Rewriting Audit History.Catalyst 48-50 Marshall, Bruce. 1958. The Bank Audit. Edinburgh: Houghton Mifflin. Alan Reinstein,  Stephen R. Moehrle,  and  Jennifer Reynolds-Moehrle. â€Å"Crime and punishment in the marketplace  :Accountants and business executives repeating history. †Ã‚  Managerial Auditing Journal  21,  no. 4  (May  1,  2006):  420-435. Raymond, William T. (1935,  July  29). SEC Keeps Investors Informed. Barron's (1921-1942), pg. 8 Richardson, AP. â€Å"The Federal Reserve Board and audits. †Ã‚  Journal of Accountancy (pre-1986) 23,  no. 000006  (June  1,  1917):  4 52. ———————– 1] Marshall, Bruce. 1958. The Bank Audit. Edinburgh: Houghton Mifflin. [2] Richardson, AP. â€Å"The Federal Reserve Board and audits. †Ã‚  Journal of Accountancy (pre-1986) 23,  no. 000006  (June  1,  1917):  452. [3] Humphrey W E. 1928. A Friend of Honest Business. Nation's Business (pre-1986),  June  5,  31. [4] Raymond, William T. (1935,  July  29). SEC Keeps Investors Informed. Barron's (1921-1942), pg. 8 [5] Kinney, William R. , Jr. ,  Maher, Michael W. ,  and  Wright, David W. 1990. Assertions-Based Standards for Integrated Internal Control. Accounting Horizons  4,  no. ,  (December  1) [6] Armstrong, Marshall. 1973. FASB will develop broad qualitative standards. The CPA Journal (pre-1986)  43,  no. 000010,  (October  1):  844 [7] Bateman & Co. A History of Accounting & Auditing Standards. February 2002. http://www. batemanhouston. com/newsStds. htm [8] Alan Reinstein,  Stephen R. Moehrle,  and  Jennifer Reynolds-Moehrle. â€Å"Crime and punishment in the marketplace  :Accountants and business executives repeating history. †Ã‚  Managerial Auditing Journal  21,  no. 4  (May  1,  2006):  420-435. [9] Lasch, Erin. 2002. Chuck Landes is Rewriting Audit History. Catalyst 48-50

I could never believe in the rule of law again Essay

â€Å"I could never believe in the rule of law again.† Says David, reflecting on the events of 1948. Why does he come to this conclusion? Larry Watson’s Montana 1948 is a story set at Bentrock, Montanan focuses on the family struggles of the Haydens between loyalty and justice. David Hayden, the adult narrator, looks back at the summer when he was twelve years old, and recalls all the life-changing events which completely lead to his disbelief of the rule of law. Young David once believed in the rule of law, and believed the adult is righteous to uphold justice, but on the contrary, what unveiled before him is how the Hayden family neglect the law and abuse power, is how his grandfather attempts to protect his criminal son, is how uncle Frank’s misdeeds is covered throughout. David’s perspectives on the rule of law is initially influenced by the way the members of his family abuse their powers. In the position of sheriff in generation, the Hayden family is the one enforce the law all the time, even above the law. Knowing â€Å"when to look and when to look away† is the principle of grandfather Julian, as a former sheriff, who ‘was a dominating man who drew sustenance and strength from controlling others’. It is a sign of corruption as law is not taking seriously. As for Wesley, although he seems not â€Å"get a hang of it†, he actually lived happily and proudly under Julian’s power at the start. This is evident when David recounts his drunken father said to Gail â€Å"They couldn’t arrest us-we are the law. †after Julian intimidate back the cowboys at a bar. With power in their hands, they are able to do whatever they want against the law without being punished. David was shocked when he discovered that both of his father and grandfather were in conspiracy of knowledge about Frank raping Indian girls, but just indulged it. Before reaching the central climax, David already finds out that people are not equal in front of the law, powerful people is always dominant. The light of justice is getting dim and dim in response to the two main characters’ action. Naà ¯ve as David, could originally believe his grandfather will take care of everything, if Wes chose to tell on Frank. â€Å"He’ll shake him up and shout in Frank’s face that he’d better straighten up  and fly right or there’ll be hell to pay.† However the reality is that neither Wes nor Julian brings about justice at first. Wes doesn’t want to breach family loyalty, so he claimed he â€Å"won’t do anything to arrange it†, despite of ultimately overcoming his moral dilemma and standing up to Julian. Julian’s confrontation to Wes that â€Å"You don’t lock up your brother† for raping Indians is evidence of inequality before law based on racism. His following action on setting Frank free by attacking David’s house is even more lawless. After stumble into these disturbing events, David realizes that th e one who should be the representative of law, ironically, is the one break the law first. If there is the rule of law, then â€Å"sins-crimes-are not supposed to go unpunished†. Frank did pay his life for the bill eventually, but it didn’t undergo the ways in law. In order to preserve the family reputation, all the family members are in agreement of concealing the truth of Frank’s death and all his crimes. Thus, justice is not achieved for dead Marie and those Indian patients. At that time, David senses how powerless the law is, so he can’t help but ask â€Å"How many secrets had our town agreed to keep?† And since â€Å"any human community might omit stories of sexual abuse, murder, suicide†¦Ã¢â‚¬  he no longer holds his childhood faith in the rule of law again. All these encounters in David’s younger days, make him aware of the human intervention of law. The rule of law can be alternated by human, the rule of law can be rewritten by human, the rule of law doesn’t always deliver justice. When the family loyalty clashes with justice, the rule of law has to compromise.

How Race is Lived In America essays

How Race is Lived In America essays The three articles I had a chance to read were from The New York Times project examining the changing dimensions of racial and racialized experiences in the United States. The Minority Quarterback: Coaches Chose a White to Call the Plays. The Campus Found that Hard to Swallow, a story of a white minority in an all black university, The Way We Live Now: 7-16-00: Round Table; Writing about Race (And Trying to Talk About it), and A Conversation on Race; America, Seen Through the Filter of Race, were the three articles I read from the newspaper series How Race is Lived in America. These readings related very much to our class discussions and in our text books about race and communication/prejudice concepts. In the article The Minority Quarterback, I found that the title itself baffled me at first. The title showed me that I even have prejudice. From the definition formed in class that prejudice is based upon a faulty and inflexible generalization. For me, when I think of a quarterback, I think of a white playing the position. Since in the past of football most quarterbacks were dominantly white. So when I read the title I thought it was about a black quarterback playing the role and his struggle being the leader of the team. But the article was exactly opposite, which gave me a kick out of it for thinking that way. The story was about a white quarterback accepting a scholarship to play for a big time football school among black colleges. He was going to be the first white to start quarterback in the history of the black Southwestern Athletic Conference. His teammates were really unhappy about the situation; they believed that he got the position because he was white and not on his ability. The players picked on his weaknesses and made jokes that he was the typical bland white athlete. This is an example of antilocution one of the levels of prejudice...